How were ancient governments organized?

Ancient governments took diverse forms, but most shared certain features: centralized authority in a single ruler, legitimacy derived from divine or cosmic sources, and bureaucratic systems for managing resources, labor, and territory.

In Mesopotamia, the earliest political unit was the city-state, governed by a combination of temple institutions and secular rulers. The lugal (king) was originally a temporary war-leader whose role became permanent and hereditary. Sumerian kings claimed to be chosen by the gods and responsible for maintaining divine favor through proper governance and ritual. Bureaucracies staffed by scribes managed taxation, irrigation, and justice.

Egypt developed a different model: a unified territorial state under a divine king. The pharaoh was not merely a representative of the gods but was considered a god himself — simultaneously Horus (the living falcon god) and the son of Ra. This divine status justified extraordinary mobilization of resources and labor, enabling projects like pyramid construction. A sophisticated bureaucracy headed by a vizier administered the country.

In China, the Shang king served as chief priest and diviner, communicating with ancestors through oracle bone rituals. The Zhou Dynasty introduced the Mandate of Heaven, which made the ruler's legitimacy contingent on virtuous governance — a more conditional form of divine authority that created built-in justification for revolution.

The Indus Valley Civilization presents a puzzle: its cities show little evidence of palaces, monumental royal tombs, or military fortifications. Some scholars hypothesize a more collective form of governance — perhaps merchant councils or religious assemblies — though without deciphered texts, such theories remain speculative.