What was fascism?
Fascism was an authoritarian, ultranationalist political ideology that emerged in Europe after World War I. Rejecting both liberal democracy and Marxist socialism, fascism exalted the nation and race above the individual, demanded total obedience to a charismatic leader, glorified violence and military expansion, and suppressed all political opposition. It rose to power in Italy under Mussolini and in Germany under Hitler.
Fascism was the most destructive political ideology of the 20th century, responsible for World War II, the Holocaust, and tens of millions of deaths. Understanding what fascism was — and what made it appeal to millions of ordinary people — remains essential for understanding the modern world.
Fascism emerged from the wreckage of World War I. The war had shattered faith in liberal democratic institutions, created millions of traumatized veterans who felt betrayed by civilian politicians, and produced economic chaos that discredited the existing order. In Italy, Benito Mussolini — a former socialist journalist — founded the Fascist movement in 1919, combining extreme nationalism, anti-communism, and paramilitary violence. He marched on Rome in 1922 and gradually dismantled Italian democracy, establishing a one-party dictatorship.
Adolf Hitler adapted Mussolini's model to German conditions, adding virulent racial antisemitism as a central ideological pillar. The Nazi Party — the National Socialist German Workers' Party — promised to restore German greatness after the humiliation of Versailles, destroy the 'Jewish-Bolshevik' conspiracy that supposedly threatened the nation, and create a racially pure Volksgemeinschaft (people's community). Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933 and within months had established a totalitarian state that controlled every aspect of German life.
Fascism shared certain features across its national variants: an obsessive cult of the leader, rejection of rational debate in favor of myth and spectacle, glorification of violence and war, contempt for liberal values like individual rights and free press, an alliance with traditional elites (industrialists, military, church), aggressive nationalism, and the identification of internal and external enemies as existential threats to the nation. It mobilized mass support through propaganda, rallies, uniforms, and the promise of national rebirth.
What made fascism uniquely dangerous was its combination of modern organizational techniques with irrational, mythic appeals. Fascist regimes used radio, film, and mass rallies to create emotional bonds between leader and nation. They modernized armies and economies while pursuing goals rooted in racial fantasy and imperial nostalgia. The result was a political movement capable of mobilizing entire nations for war and genocide on an industrial scale.