What was the Iranian Revolution?
The Iranian Revolution (1978–1979) overthrew Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's Western-backed monarchy and established an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. It was the first revolution to install a theocratic government in the modern era, transforming Iran from a secular authoritarian state into a religious one and reshaping the geopolitics of the entire Middle East.
The Iranian Revolution was one of the most consequential upheavals of the late 20th century — a revolution that defied Cold War categories by being neither capitalist nor communist, but theocratic. It demonstrated the power of religion as a revolutionary force in the modern world and fundamentally altered the Middle East's political landscape.
The Shah had ruled Iran since 1941, with a brief interruption when the CIA and British intelligence orchestrated a coup in 1953 to overthrow the democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh after he nationalized Iran's oil industry. The Shah modernized Iran's economy and military with oil wealth and American support, but his regime was deeply authoritarian. The SAVAK secret police tortured and killed dissidents. Rapid modernization disrupted traditional society and widened inequality. The Shah's 'White Revolution' — land reform, women's suffrage, secularization — alienated the powerful Shia clergy and bazaar merchants without winning genuine popular support.
Opposition coalesced around Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a senior cleric exiled since 1964 for opposing the Shah's reforms. From exile in Iraq and then France, Khomeini distributed cassette tapes of sermons that circulated throughout Iran, articulating a vision of Islamic governance — velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the Islamic jurist) — in which supreme political authority rested with religious scholars. His message united disparate opposition groups: religious conservatives, leftists, liberals, students, and workers all saw the Shah as their common enemy.
Mass protests began in January 1978 and escalated throughout the year despite violent repression. On 'Black Friday' (September 8, 1978), security forces killed hundreds of protesters in Tehran's Jaleh Square, radicalizing the movement beyond compromise. Strikes by oil workers crippled the economy. By January 1979, the Shah's position was untenable. He fled Iran on January 16, and Khomeini returned triumphantly on February 1 to crowds of millions.
The revolution's aftermath consolidated Khomeini's theocratic vision. A referendum established the Islamic Republic. The seizure of the American embassy and the 444-day hostage crisis (1979–1981) severed ties with the United States and radicalized the revolution's international posture. Liberal and leftist allies who had joined the revolution were systematically purged. The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) cemented the regime's hold through nationalist solidarity. The Iranian Revolution inspired Islamist movements across the Muslim world and established a model of political Islam that continues to shape global politics.