What was the Mongol Empire?

The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in human history, stretching at its height from the Pacific coast of Korea to the plains of Hungary — roughly 24 million square kilometers encompassing hundreds of millions of people. Founded by Genghis Khan following his unification of the Mongol tribes in 1206, the empire was built through some of the most effective — and devastating — military campaigns the world had ever seen.

The Mongol military machine combined exceptional mobility, sophisticated tactics, and psychological warfare. Mounted archers who had trained on horseback from childhood could cover vast distances and fight with deadly accuracy. The Mongols employed feigned retreats, intelligence networks, and the systematic terrorization of cities that resisted — followed by tolerance and integration of those that surrendered. The destruction during the conquest phase was staggering, with some estimates placing the death toll at 30–40 million people.

After Genghis Khan's death in 1227, the empire was divided among his descendants into four khanates: the Golden Horde (Russia), the Chagatai Khanate (Central Asia), the Ilkhanate (Persia), and the Yuan Dynasty (China). While this division weakened central authority, the Pax Mongolica — the relative peace across Mongol territories — created the most connected Eurasian trading zone in pre-modern history. The Silk Road flourished, Marco Polo traveled to China, and ideas and technologies flowed freely between civilizations.

The empire's legacy is deeply ambiguous. The destruction was immense and some regions took centuries to recover. But the connections forged under Mongol rule — linking China, the Islamic world, and Europe as never before — permanently changed the trajectory of world history.