Bronze Age to Iron Age
A timeline from 1,200 to 600 BCE — the aftermath of collapse, the rise of iron, and the emergence of new civilizations and empires.
Sea Peoples invade the eastern Mediterranean
Waves of migrants and raiders — the enigmatic Sea Peoples — attack civilizations across the Mediterranean, contributing to the Bronze Age Collapse.
Hittite Empire destroyed
The Hittite capital of Hattusa is burned and the empire disintegrates, ending one of the Bronze Age's great powers.
Iron smelting spreads
With bronze trade networks destroyed, iron smelting technology — previously a curiosity — spreads rapidly. Iron ore is abundant and locally available.
Phoenician alphabet invented
The Phoenicians develop a 22-letter consonant alphabet — radically simpler than cuneiform or hieroglyphs — that will become the ancestor of nearly all modern alphabets.
Zhou Dynasty overthrows the Shang
The Zhou conquer the Shang and introduce the Mandate of Heaven — a political philosophy that will shape Chinese governance for three millennia.
Neo-Assyrian Empire rises
Assyria rebuilds as a military superpower, pioneering iron weapons, siege warfare, and professional standing armies.
Carthage founded
Phoenician settlers from Tyre establish Carthage in North Africa, which will become the western Mediterranean's dominant commercial power.
Greeks adopt the Phoenician alphabet
Greek city-states adapt the Phoenician consonant alphabet by adding vowels, creating the ancestor of Latin, Cyrillic, and many modern scripts.
Fall of the Assyrian Empire
Babylon and the Medes sack the Assyrian capital Nineveh. The empire's collapse is so complete that within generations, its cities are lost to memory.