The Gunpowder Empires
The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires use gunpowder technology to build vast, culturally brilliant states across the Islamic world from Southeast Europe to the Indian subcontinent.
Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople
Sultan Mehmed II uses massive cannons to breach the Theodosian Walls, ending the Byzantine Empire and establishing Ottoman control over the crossroads of Europe and Asia.
Safavid Dynasty Established in Persia
Ismail I founds the Safavid Empire and imposes Shi'a Islam as the state religion, creating a distinct Persian-Shi'a identity that endures to the present.
Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent
The Ottoman Empire reaches its zenith under Suleiman, who conquers Hungary, reforms the legal code, and presides over a golden age of architecture and culture.
Babur Founds the Mughal Empire
The Central Asian prince Babur defeats the Delhi Sultanate at the Battle of Panipat, establishing Mughal rule over northern India.
Reign of Akbar the Great
Akbar expands the Mughal Empire across most of India, creates an efficient administration, abolishes the jizya tax, and promotes religious tolerance.
Reign of Shah Abbas I
The Safavid Empire reaches its cultural and military peak under Shah Abbas, who builds the magnificent capital of Isfahan and modernizes the army.
Construction of the Taj Mahal
Emperor Shah Jahan commissions the world's most famous mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal — a masterpiece of Mughal architecture blending Persian, Islamic, and Indian styles.
Ottoman Siege of Vienna Fails
The Ottoman defeat at the gates of Vienna marks the beginning of the empire's long military retreat from Europe, though it remains a major power for two more centuries.