From Copernicus to Newton to Voltaire, a new way of understanding the natural world through observation and reason transforms science, philosophy, and politics across Europe.
On his deathbed, Copernicus publishes his heliocentric model, proposing that the Earth orbits the Sun — the opening salvo of the Scientific Revolution.
Galileo's telescopic observations of Jupiter's moons, lunar mountains, and Venus's phases provide powerful evidence for heliocentrism.
William Harvey's experimental proof that blood circulates through the body overturns 1,500 years of Galenic medicine.
Isaac Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation unify terrestrial and celestial mechanics, culminating the Scientific Revolution.
John Locke's theory of natural rights and government by consent lays the intellectual foundation for liberal democracy.
Montesquieu's analysis of government types and his advocacy for separation of powers will directly influence the US Constitution.
The 28-volume Encyclopédie systematizes all human knowledge and spreads Enlightenment ideas to an unprecedented audience.
Rousseau's radical argument that legitimate government must be based on the 'general will' of the people will inspire revolutionary movements worldwide.
Smith's foundational work of modern economics argues for free markets and challenges mercantilist orthodoxy.