Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment
From Copernicus to Newton to Voltaire, a new way of understanding the natural world through observation and reason transforms science, philosophy, and politics across Europe.
Copernicus Publishes De Revolutionibus
On his deathbed, Copernicus publishes his heliocentric model, proposing that the Earth orbits the Sun — the opening salvo of the Scientific Revolution.
Galileo Turns His Telescope to the Sky
Galileo's telescopic observations of Jupiter's moons, lunar mountains, and Venus's phases provide powerful evidence for heliocentrism.
Harvey Describes Blood Circulation
William Harvey's experimental proof that blood circulates through the body overturns 1,500 years of Galenic medicine.
Newton Publishes the Principia
Isaac Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation unify terrestrial and celestial mechanics, culminating the Scientific Revolution.
Locke Publishes Two Treatises of Government
John Locke's theory of natural rights and government by consent lays the intellectual foundation for liberal democracy.
Montesquieu Publishes The Spirit of the Laws
Montesquieu's analysis of government types and his advocacy for separation of powers will directly influence the US Constitution.
Diderot's Encyclopédie Published
The 28-volume Encyclopédie systematizes all human knowledge and spreads Enlightenment ideas to an unprecedented audience.
Rousseau Publishes The Social Contract
Rousseau's radical argument that legitimate government must be based on the 'general will' of the people will inspire revolutionary movements worldwide.
Adam Smith Publishes The Wealth of Nations
Smith's foundational work of modern economics argues for free markets and challenges mercantilist orthodoxy.