Absolutism

Absolutism was the political system in which a single ruler held theoretically unlimited power over the state, unchecked by parliament, constitution, or competing centers of authority. Dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries, absolutism represented a dramatic concentration of political power in the hands of monarchs who claimed to rule by divine right.

The archetype of absolutism was Louis XIV of France (r. 1643–1715), who supposedly declared 'L'état, c'est moi' ('I am the state'). Louis centralized French government around his person, reduced the aristocracy to courtiers at Versailles, controlled the Church, directed the economy, and maintained a standing army — all sustained by an expanding bureaucracy that reached into every corner of the kingdom. Other absolutist monarchs — Philip II of Spain, Peter the Great of Russia, Frederick William I of Prussia — pursued similar programs of centralization.

Absolutism emerged from the chaos of the Wars of Religion and the perceived need for strong central authority to maintain order. Its philosophical justification came from thinkers like Jean Bodin (sovereignty must be absolute and indivisible) and Thomas Hobbes (only an all-powerful sovereign can prevent the war of all against all). Absolutism was challenged by Enlightenment thinkers who argued for limited government, natural rights, and the consent of the governed — arguments that found their ultimate expression in the revolutions of the late 18th century.