Gunpowder

Gunpowder is arguably the most consequential invention in the history of warfare. Discovered by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality — probably during the Tang Dynasty in the 9th century — it gradually transformed from a curiosity into a world-changing technology that ended the medieval military order and reshaped global power dynamics.

The Chinese developed gunpowder weapons in stages. Fire arrows and fire lances appeared in the 10th century. True guns — metal barrels propelling projectiles with gunpowder — emerged by the 13th century. The Song Dynasty used gunpowder weapons extensively against the Mongols, who then transmitted the technology westward across their empire. By the 14th century, gunpowder had reached Europe and the Islamic world.

The impact was revolutionary. In Europe, cannons made medieval castles obsolete — walls that had withstood siege for months could be battered down in days. This shifted power from local lords to centralized monarchs who could afford artillery, accelerating the formation of nation-states. Firearms gradually rendered the armored knight — the symbol of feudal military power — irrelevant. Globally, gunpowder technology gave European powers a decisive military advantage in their colonial expansion, reshaping the balance of world power from the 16th century onward.