Imperialism

Imperialism — the policy of extending a nation's authority by territorial acquisition or by establishing economic and political control over other peoples — defined the relationship between powerful and weaker nations from the 15th through the 20th centuries. While empires have existed throughout history, modern imperialism, driven by industrial capitalism and racial ideology, was distinctive in its global scale and systematic exploitation.

The 'New Imperialism' of the late 19th century was driven by multiple forces: industrial economies' need for raw materials and markets, strategic competition between European powers, technological superiority (particularly in weapons and medicine), and racist ideologies that characterized colonized peoples as inferior and in need of European 'civilization.' The Scramble for Africa, the British Raj in India, and European spheres of influence in China were all expressions of this impulse.

Imperialism's legacy is profound and contested. Colonial powers built infrastructure, introduced modern education and legal systems, and connected their colonies to the global economy — but primarily to serve imperial interests. The extraction of wealth, suppression of local cultures, arbitrary borders, and racial hierarchies created lasting damage. Anti-colonial movements drew on both indigenous traditions and Enlightenment principles to challenge imperial rule, ultimately dismantling the colonial system in the decades after World War II.