The Ming Dynasty

The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) was the last ethnic-Han dynasty to rule China and one of the most consequential in Chinese history. Founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant rebel who overthrew the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the Ming restored Chinese cultural traditions after nearly a century of foreign rule and presided over a period of political stability, economic growth, and cultural achievement.

The early Ming era saw extraordinary ambition. Emperor Yongle moved the capital to Beijing and built the Forbidden City — the vast palace complex that remains one of the world's greatest architectural achievements. He also commissioned the treasure voyages of Admiral Zheng He, whose massive fleets (some ships reportedly 400 feet long) reached Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa between 1405 and 1433. These voyages demonstrated Chinese naval superiority decades before European exploration began — and the decision to discontinue them remains one of history's great 'what ifs.'

Ming China was the world's most populous and arguably wealthiest state. Its porcelain (the famous 'blue and white' ware) was exported globally. Cotton textile production boomed. Silver from Spanish American mines flowed to China in exchange for silk, porcelain, and tea, making China the terminus of a truly global economy. The dynasty's fall in 1644 — to peasant rebellion and Manchu invasion — ended an era but not China's cultural continuity.