Modern India

India's independence in 1947, achieved through decades of struggle against British colonial rule, was accompanied by the trauma of partition — the division of British India into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan, which displaced 10-20 million people and killed an estimated 1-2 million in communal violence. The new nation, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, embarked on the ambitious project of building a secular, democratic, and socialist republic from the wreckage of colonialism.

Nehru's India pursued a mixed economy with central planning, non-alignment in Cold War politics, and democratic governance. The country faced enormous challenges: poverty, illiteracy, linguistic and religious diversity, and tensions with Pakistan over Kashmir. Despite predictions that democracy could not survive in such a poor, diverse country, India maintained its democratic institutions — a remarkable achievement in a postcolonial world littered with authoritarian regimes.

Economic liberalization beginning in 1991 unleashed growth that transformed India from a stagnant economy to one of the world's fastest-growing. India's IT industry, space program, and growing middle class have made it an increasingly important global player. Yet the country continues to grapple with inequality, religious tensions, environmental pressures, and the challenge of providing for 1.4 billion people. India's trajectory will be one of the defining stories of the 21st century.