The Persian Wars

The Persian Wars (499–449 BCE) were a series of conflicts between the Greek city-states and the Achaemenid Persian Empire that shaped the course of Western civilization. What began as a revolt by Greek cities in Ionia against Persian rule escalated into two massive Persian invasions of mainland Greece — and two of the most celebrated military victories in ancient history.

The first invasion, launched by Darius I in 490 BCE, ended at Marathon, where a heavily outnumbered Athenian army defeated the Persian force on the beach. The second invasion, led by Darius' son Xerxes in 480 BCE, was far larger. Xerxes brought an army of perhaps 200,000 men (ancient sources claim millions, but modern historians are skeptical). The famous last stand of 300 Spartans at Thermopylae bought time for the Greek fleet to regroup, and the decisive naval victory at Salamis — orchestrated by the Athenian leader Themistocles — turned the tide of the war.

The Greek victory had consequences far beyond the battlefield. Athens, flush with confidence and prestige, entered its Golden Age — the extraordinary flowering of democracy, philosophy, art, and literature that still influences the modern world. The wars also crystallized a Greek sense of shared identity, uniting the fractious city-states (however briefly) against a common enemy. For better and worse, the Persian Wars established a lasting narrative of 'West versus East' that has echoed through Western culture ever since.