What was absolutism?

Absolutism was the political system in which a monarch exercised supreme, theoretically unlimited authority over their realm. The concept drew on the medieval doctrine of divine right — the belief that kings were chosen by God and answerable only to Him — but was articulated more systematically in the early modern period as monarchs sought to consolidate power against feudal nobles, independent towns, and the Church.

The archetypal absolute monarch was Louis XIV of France (r. 1643–1715), who reportedly declared 'L'état, c'est moi' ('I am the state'). Louis centralized French government, tamed the nobility by requiring them to attend his lavish court at Versailles, maintained a massive standing army, directed the economy through mercantilist policies, and revoked the Edict of Nantes that had guaranteed Protestant rights. The Palace of Versailles itself was a political instrument — its grandeur demonstrated royal power and kept the nobility occupied with elaborate court rituals.

Absolutism took different forms across Europe. In Russia, Peter the Great and Catherine the Great ruled as autocrats who forcibly modernized their empire while maintaining serfdom. The Habsburg emperors of Austria governed a diverse, multi-ethnic realm through bureaucratic centralization. Frederick the Great of Prussia combined absolute power with Enlightenment ideals, calling himself 'the first servant of the state' — a concept known as 'enlightened absolutism.'

Absolutism was not truly 'absolute' in practice. Even the most powerful monarchs were constrained by tradition, law, the Church, limited communications, and the need to maintain the support of their nobles. England's attempt at absolutism under the Stuarts provoked civil war and the Glorious Revolution of 1688, establishing the principle of constitutional monarchy. The French Revolution would deliver the most dramatic repudiation of absolutism, demonstrating that sovereignty ultimately belonged to the people.