What was Athenian democracy?

Athenian democracy was a radical experiment in direct self-governance that emerged in the late 6th century BCE. Unlike modern representative democracies, where citizens elect legislators to make decisions on their behalf, Athenian democracy put the power of decision directly in the hands of the people. Any adult male citizen could speak and vote in the ekklesia — the assembly that met roughly forty times a year on the Pnyx hill overlooking the Acropolis.

The system evolved through several key reforms. Cleisthenes reorganized the citizen body into ten new tribes in 508 BCE, breaking the power of aristocratic family networks. Ephialtes stripped the aristocratic Areopagus council of most of its powers in 461 BCE. Under Pericles, payment for jury service and public office allowed poorer citizens to participate fully in government.

The scope of direct participation was remarkable. Citizens voted on war and peace, taxation, public building projects, and foreign policy. They served as jurors in courts where cases were decided by panels of hundreds. Most public officials were chosen by lottery rather than election — the Athenians believed that election favored the wealthy and well-connected, while lottery gave every citizen an equal chance to serve.

Athenian democracy had real limitations. Women were entirely excluded from political life. Enslaved people — perhaps 30-40% of the population — had no rights at all. Foreign residents (metics) contributed economically but could not vote. At its peak, perhaps 30,000-40,000 men held full political rights out of a total population approaching 300,000. Despite these exclusions, Athenian democracy remains a powerful reference point for debates about political participation and popular sovereignty.