Nationalism & Imperialism
Nationalist movements unify Italy and Germany while European powers carve up Africa and Asia in the greatest wave of colonial expansion in history.
Congress of Vienna
European powers redraw the map after Napoleon's defeat, creating a conservative order that nationalists will spend the next century challenging.
First Opium War
Britain forces China to accept the opium trade and cede Hong Kong, beginning China's 'century of humiliation.'
Revolutions Sweep Across Europe
The 'Springtime of Peoples' — nationalist and liberal uprisings in France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and Hungary challenge the conservative order.
Perry Opens Japan
Commodore Matthew Perry's 'Black Ships' force Japan to end its isolation, triggering the crisis that will produce the Meiji Restoration.
Kingdom of Italy Proclaimed
After Garibaldi's legendary campaign and Cavour's diplomacy, most of the Italian peninsula is unified under the Piedmontese monarchy.
Meiji Restoration in Japan
The Tokugawa shogunate falls and Emperor Meiji is restored, launching Japan's extraordinary transformation into a modern industrial power.
German Empire Proclaimed at Versailles
Bismarck's wars of unification create a powerful German nation-state, fundamentally altering the European balance of power.
Berlin Conference Divides Africa
European powers agree on rules for colonizing Africa — without any African participation — triggering a competitive rush that colonizes 90% of the continent.
Japan Defeats China
Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War announces its arrival as a modern military power and accelerates the collapse of Qing China.
Boer War in South Africa
Britain's brutal war against Dutch-descended Boer settlers foreshadows the total warfare of the 20th century, including concentration camps.
Japan Defeats Russia
Japan's stunning victory over Russia is the first modern defeat of a European power by an Asian nation, inspiring anti-colonial movements worldwide.
Latin American Independence Wars Begin
Bolívar, San Martín, and other leaders launch independence movements across Spanish America, inspired by Enlightenment ideals.